Emanations
volume 3, March 2001
from the Caribbean and Punta Cana
published by Cornell University
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Emanationsvolume 3, March 2001
from the Caribbean and Punta Cana | ||
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published by Cornell University | ||
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Emanations from the Caribbean and Punta Cana vol. 3 | ||||||
EDITORS' NOTE | ||||||
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This third issue of Emanations, an annual forum for undergraduate research in the biological sciences, focuses on research conducted at the Cornell Punta Cana Biodiversity Laboratory and the Cornell Tropical Gardens at Punta Cana. The papers and abstracts in this issue are primarily the result of individual student research projects conducted during the summers of 1999 and 2000. The existence and success of the Cornell Punta Cana Biodiversity Laboratory, which will hold its dedication and opening ceremony March 17 2001, is the result of a unique cooperation between a University, a business organization (Grupo Punta Cana), and Mr. Theodore (Ted) Kheel and the TASK Foundation. The facility is available to students and researchers from Cornell University, the Dominican Republic, and other institutes of higher learning. The purpose of research conducted at the laboratory is to i) increase our understanding of the complex interactions between living organisms and their habitats; ii) to expand our knowledge regarding the role individual species play in the ecosystem; and iii) discovery of novel natural medicines, agricultural pesticides, and important genes. Ongoing research projects include, but are not limited to: studying the interactions of insects with plants, the role of birds in distributing plant seeds, the use of bioactive plants by birds, diversity of marine organisms in the Punta Cana reef, the diversity of plants in the Punta Cana area, and bioactive compounds in plants and marine organisms. In addition, the use of plants, insects, marine organisms, and birds by local people for economic and medicinal uses is being studied., since ecosystems do not exist in isolation. That is, ecosystem diversity and health and human populations are interdependent. The laboratory at Punta Cana not only is for research, but also is for the education of people regarding biodiversity. As part of this goal, undergraduate students are brought to the laboratory each summer (two groups have already spent summers there). These research and education expeditions provide students with a rich, hands-on approach to scientific research. With the invaluable assistance of many faculty members, a variety of projects have been developed and completed, with many more planned for the future. Student projects pertain to the study of insects, birds, marine organisms, plants, use of plants by local people, and combinations of these. In addition to the individual projects, each student is responsible for collecting biological samples to be tested for medicinal properties. Students not only acquire practical skills through the development and implementation of individual research projects, but also receive exposure to a variety of valuable learning experiences. In some cases, students have had the opportunity to spend several days living with local people (in Bonao and other communities). By living with people from another country, one can truly notice and appreciate |
differences in culture and outlooks. A small group of students conducted research underwater, a remarkable experience that will be remembered for a lifetime. Furthermore, all student researchers attend tours with experienced professors exploring the plant, insect, and marine diversity of the area. A variety of professors present informal seminars on an almost daily bases on topics ranging from birds to plants to bio-chemicals — an excellent complement to the research being carried out. Students also have the opportunity to practice their presentation skills by presenting their research to the entire group at the end of the summer. Once the research is completed and everyone gets their belongings together, one stops and thinks: What knowledge/experience have I gained? Has my career outlook changed? We hope the research expeditions to the Dominican Republic help shape students' perspectives on scientific research and guide them to a fruitful career in biological research. The research trip to the Dominican Republic is made possible through the generous assistance of the Minority International Research Program (MIRT) of the NIH, Cornell University, Theodore Kheel, Frank Rainieri, Mr. Hank Parker, and Dr. Eloy Rodriguez. The Dominican Republic National Herbarium and Botanical Gardens also contribute to the success of the research. The first sections of this issue of Emanations discuss the development of the Cornell Punta Cana Biodiversity Laboratory. The majority of this issue is centered around five research themes: plants, birds, insects, marine organisms, and traditional medicine. The Emanations editorial staff have worked together to write introductions to each theme section. As the articles and abstracts included in this issue of Emanations are reviewed, we hope they present a stimulating representation of the research conducted in the Dominican Republic. | |||||
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March 2001 Emanations from the Caribbean and Punta Cana | ||
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Contents
Dedication iv Research Participant Roster v
The Big Picture: Ted Kheel translates ideas into action. George Lowery 1 The Study Site in the Caribbean. I. Albarran, F. Guánchez, and J. Ketzis 3
Student Perspectives The Perfect Summer Internship. By O.A. Piloto 6 Adventure!?! By N. Bevans 7
The Cornell University Biodiversity Laboratory at Punta Cana. F. Guánchez and J. Berry 8
Entomology Research 12 Phytochemical Comparison of Larval Food Plants and Larval Stages of Anastrus sempiternus (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) and Pyralidae species. C. Pierre, R. Bastardo, M. Alford, and E. Rodriguez 13 Entomology Abstracts 16
Marine Biology Research 18 A Preliminary Ecological, Bioactivity, and Comparative Chemical Study of Three Species of Millepora Hydrocorals and the Marine Worm Spirobranchus giganteus. K. Gorospe, A. Fields, and E. Rodriguez 20 Marine Biology Abstracts 24
Ornithology Research 27 Chemistry and Biology of Caribbean Plants Used by the Smooth- Billed Ani (Crotophaga ani) in Nest Building. J. Pinto, M. Aregullin, D. Rosane, and E. Rodriguez 29 Ornithology Abstracts 33
Plant Diversity and Phytochemistry Research 35 Phytochemical Comparison of Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. I. Arias, F. Guánchez, M. Alford, M. Aregullin, and E. Rodriguez 36 Cytotoxicity of Uncaria tomentosa alkaloids on SKBR-3 and MDA-MB 231 Breast Cancer Cell Lines. M.T. Laux, M. Aregullin, J. Berry, C. Cordona, and E. Rodriguez 41 Plant Diversity and Phytochemistry Abstracts 44
Traditional Medicine Research 46 Preliminary Analysis of Medicinal Teas Used in the Dominican Republic J. Finnie, J. Ketzis, and E. Rodriguez 48 Traditional Medicine Abstracts 52
Cornell University Undergraduate Research Program on Biodiversity in the Amazon and the Caribbean, Summer 2002 — APPLICATION 58 | ||
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Dedication | ||||
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Emanations, Volume 3, is dedicated to all of the people who have made the Cornell Punta Cana Biodiversity Laboratory possible and all of the faculty, instructors, and graduate research assistants who have made the student research expeditions possible. We thank the following people and organizations for their support, financial and otherwise, without which none of this work would be possible:
Mr. Frank Rainieri (President C.E.O. Director of the Board of Directors, GPC) Mr. Theodore Kheel (President Task Foundation, Chairman of the Board, Grupo Punta Cana (GPC)) Mrs. Haidee de Rainieri (Fundación Punta Cana) Mr. Oscar de la Renta (Grupo Punta Cana) Mr. Julio Iglesias (Grupo Punta Cana) Mrs. Ana Kheel (TASK Foundation) Mr. Robert Kheel (TASK Foundation) Mrs. Jane Kheel Stanley (TASK Foundation) Dr. Bernardo Vega (Former Ambassador of the Dominican Republic in Washington) Dr. Eloy Rodriguez (Professor, MIRT-NIH Director, and Director of the Cornell Biodiversity Laboratory in Punta Cana, Cornell University) We also would like to thank and acknowledge the following individuals: | ||||
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Dominican Republic Mr. Hipólito Mejía (President, Dominican Republic) Mr. Frank Pons (Minister of the Environment) Mr. Julian de la Rosa (Ambassador, Science and Technology)
Jardín Botánico Nacional Dr. Milcíades Mejía (Director) Mr. Ricardo García Mrs. Daisy Castillo Mrs. Jackeline Salazar (Cornell graduate student) Mr. Francisco Jiménez Ms. Ruth Bastardo
Punta Cana All Punta Cana Beach Resort Personnel (PCBR) Public Relations General Staff Restaurant La Tortuga Mr. Alejandro Herrera (Director, Punta Cana Ecological Foundation) Mr. Jake Kheel (Ecological Foundation) Mr. Richard Stanley Mrs. Alejandra Tolentino (PCBR) Mr. Manuel Despradel G. (PCBR) Mr. Adolfo Ramírez (GPC) Mr. I. Ramírez-Garrido Mr. Oscar Imbert (Architect, GPC) Mr. Juan Ribas (PCBR) Mr. Rafael Ramírez (GPC) Mr. Sigfrido Pastrano (GPC) Mr. Humberto Ruiz (GPC) Mrs. Chantal Rossi (GPC) Mr. Rolando Sanó Punta Cana Ecological Foundation Board of Members Personnel of the "Urbanización La Marina" (GPC) |
Parque Nacional Armando Bermúdez and El Bonao de Higüey Mr. Ruben Castillo, Guide Dr. Radhamés Lora Salcedo Mr. Francisco Peralta, Park guide Mr. José Santos, Park manager
Cornell University President Hunter Rawlings CALS Dean Susan Henry Dean David Call (retired) Dean Daryl Lund Associate Dean Sutphin Associate Dean Ronnie Coffman Associate Dean Don Viands Department of Plant Biology Dr. William Crepet (Chair) Dr. Steven Tanksley Dr. Kevin Nixon Pat Welch (staff) Dr. Alejandra Gandolfo Patricia Garrett (staff) Joan Wilen (staff) Francine White (staff) Cornell Alumni Affairs and Development Office Cornell Weill Medical College Dean Antonio Gotto Dr. Mary Charlson, MD Dr. Mitchell Gaynor, MD Dr. Lorraine Gudas Dr. Carl McDougall, MD
MIRT-NIH Dr. John Ruffin (CMRHD-NIH) Fogarty International Center-NIH Dr. Barbara Sina (Fogarty Center-NIH) | |||
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March 2001 Emanations from the Caribbean and Punta Cana | |||||||||||
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RESEARCH PARTICIPANT ROSTER | |||||||||||
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Faculty and Instructors 1999 and 2000
Mr. Mac Alford Dr. Manuel Aregullin Ms. Ruth Bastardo Dr. John P. Berry Dr. Mary Charlson, MD |
Dr. William L. Crepet Mr. Manuel Despradel Dr. Andre Dhondt Ms. Valerie Druget Ms. Alexis Fields Dr. Alejandra Gandolfo Dr. Francisco Guanchez Mr. Alejandro Herrera |
Mr. Oscar Imbert Mr. Francisco Jiminez Mr. Roberto Keller Dr. Jennifer K. Ketzis Ms. Maria Laux Dr. Carl McDougall, MD Dr. Milciades Mejia Dr. Kevin Nixon |
Dr. Ken Reinhardt Dr. Eloy Rodriguez Mr. David Rosane Ms. Jackeline Salazar Dr. Ernie Smith, DVM Dr. G. H. Neil Towers Dr. Donella Wilson | ||||||||
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Research Participants 1999
Jose Acosta Ilyana Albarran Christine Cappadora |
Kelse Deal Lucine Gordon Elizabeth Hill David Linhart Andres Martinez Sonya Padron |
Lara Parilla Gregory Peck Josiah Penalver Amanda Perez Obdulio Piloto Judith Pinto |
Roberto Pons Juan Robles Samuel Rose Alberto Saez Lauren Sebastiano Jennifer Young | ||||||||
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The year 1999 participating students in Punta Cana, Dominican Republic | |||||||||||
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Some of the year 2000 participating students in Parque Nacional Armando Bermúdez, Dominican Republic | ||||||||||||
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Research Participants 2000 Isa Arias Veronica Armendarez1 Rotem Ayalon Nicole Bevans Laura Blömer Myrsa Bonet Curan Bonham Laura Bystrom2 |
Ann C. Campbell Kathyrn Chabarek Kathryn Jill Chavez2 Asusena Cobarubias Melissa Davila Idelfonso De Los Angeles Jamecia Finnie Sue Ann Foster Olga Golod |
Kelvin Gorospe Anna Herforth Melissa Hu Melissa Jensen Gerome Lewis Karyna Marttini Dragana Mladenovic1 Rashan Patterson Cassandra Pierre |
Marcus Román Mildred Sánchez Wendy Vargas Elena Vayndorf Matthew VerMilyea Tatiana Viloria Héctor Volquez
1 Teaching assistants 2 Graduate students | |||||||||
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Obdulio Albert Piloto
The perfect summer internship! Some students in the biological sciences spend their summers on "indoor internships" learning a limited set of research techniques. Why not enhance your research background with a variety of experiences that includes field research?
Upon arrival to Punta Cana, one realizes that this area is a natural laboratory; a great place for the study of biodiversity. The laboratory is situated in a region where various wind and water currents collide, thereby bringing together diverse sets of organisms into one area. Furthermore, the laboratory is surrounded by such different ecosystems (marine, arid, montane, subtropical and tropical) which facilitate their investigation.
Each student researcher is given considerable freedom in designing their project. Unlike most other internships where you are limited to a specific area of research, at Punta Cana you have a wide range of research possibilities. For example, I was interested in marine biology, microbiology, and biochemistry. Therefore, my project involved studying bio-chemicals in the common sea fan (which are infected with fungus) located at a depth of 30-40 feet. Consequently, I learned how to properly collect underwater samples for further analysis. Your project takes a deeper meaning when you are involved in all aspects of its implementation.
Although the student is ultimately responsible for the completion and execution of a given project, experienced and friendly personnel are always available for assistance. Having knowledgeable scientists willing to help is reassuring, but most importantly it augments the learning experience. In addition to professors and faculty associated with Cornell University, professionals and community people from the Dominican Republic play an important role in the development of student projects. These enthusiastically helpful colleagues have first hand experience of the surrounding area and a lifetime of practical skills not learned in textbooks. In addition to the science learned after completion of this summer internship, we learned a great deal about a different country and its customs.
In conclusion, the biodiversity summer internship at Punta Cana, Dominican Republic is a unique research experience that I highly recommend to anyone considering a career in biological research. The laboratory is strategically located at the heart of the Caribbean and surrounded by biodiversity. Most importantly, the people associated with the program place an emphasis on competitive student research along with the cultivation of personal interest in the study of life.
Nicole Bevans
Adventure in the Caribbean! Adventure in the Amazon! Participate in drug-based research involving plants, animals, and people. Work hard, have fun, make friends, make connections. Apply for your chance to participate in this wonderful opportunity! (Note: What is gained by this program is based solely on the participant).
If you are reading this you might be thinking one of several things: 1) Wow! This research program is neat. I'm going try it out! 2) Hmmm . . . camping, heat, humidity, poisonous plants, Insects, FIRE CORAL!?!? No thanks. 3) It is interesting, but I would never be able to do something like that, so why should I apply?
Obviously if you find yourself in the first two categories you need no convincing about your role in the adventure. I would like to share my experience with the latter group of people, to which I once belonged.
If you are debating whether or not to embark on any adventure in life, there are a few things I learned from this one that you should know: 1) Never let yourself be the reason you don't succeed. 2) Put aside insecurities, you will be amazed by what you can accomplish. 3) Take challenges, look for the lessons and apply them to your life, you will be amazed by how much you grow. 4) Find a passion, share it with other people and you will be amazed by how it will spread.
I had doubts about applying for this program. I started questioning my abilities, my grades, and my interests. I almost convinced myself that I wasn't cut out for it just to avoid the fear of not being accepted. When I look back on it now, I'm glad that I didn't let fear stand in the way of my goals. For any adventure, we must get rid of negative thoughts, before we can see that our role is valuable.
This program made me see that I am capable of accomplishing things that I never thought I could. When I doubted my work, I decided to focus on doing my best. When I saw the finished product I was so excited! I knew it contained challenges, hard work, and success. The independent research project that I conducted showed me that hard work is worth the effort, and waiting for results is worth the time. And when the results are not what you expected, having done the work out of enjoyment gives you hope to try again.
Some aspects of my adventure were not as I had imagined, but all together it was amazing. It wasn't until after the trip to the Dominican Republic that I realized it had affected my life in a BIG way. I took time to look at the lessons I learned from the trip and the people I met: The important thing about adventures is that the excitement lies in how we see them; we have every right to work towards what we love; when we share our passions with other people, they might become passionate too.
The people dedicated to this program have so much passion for what they do that it is contagious! I was involved with a group of people who love to make a difference any way they can. Whether it is by protecting biodiversity, supporting student-based programs, or encouraging one person at a time to follow a dream, they are affecting many lives and the world around them. My adventure wouldn't have been possible without the people who support this program. Their actions have changed the way I see life. With new confidence I know that I can also make a positive difference in another person's life.
To those of you who are questioning adventure, remember this: You might not take this one, but there are others to be taken if you look. Whatever adventures you take in life, remember to let yourself succeed, have confidence, look for the lessons, find your passion and share it. You never know how many lives you will affect along the way. Have an adventure-full life!
The Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is situated in the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. Known by the indigenous name "Quisqueya", this island, together with Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico, is part of The Greater Antilles. Located between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, Quisqueya is about 670 miles (1,080 km) southeast of Florida and 310 miles (499 km) north of Colombia and Venezuela. The total land area of the Dominican Republic is 48,734 km2 (about the size of Vermont and New Hampshire combined).
The highest and the lowest elevations in the Caribbean (Pico Duarte at 3,175 m or 10,417 ft above and Lago Enriquillo at 44 m below sea level) are in the Dominican Republic. This results in a wide range of temperatures and ecosystems. The major vegetation zones are: semideciduous forest, evergreen humid forest, pine forest, and seashore and riverine habitats (Schubert 1992). Also, four mountain systems are found in the Dominican Republic: Septentrional Cordillera (in the north), Central Cordillera, Sierra de Neiba, and Sierra de Baoruco to the south. At these high altitudes, the temperatures can drop below 0°C, but for the most part, the average temperature for the whole country is around 26°C. However, the temperature in the coastal plains usually is higher.
The Dominican Republic has an estimated population of 8,129,734 (July 1999 est.). As a result of the high urbanization rate experienced since the late 1950's (the highest in the world) nearly 55% of the population lives in urban centers. Santo Domingo, the capital city, is the largest urban center with about four million people followed closely by the city of Santiago (Marcano 2000, cited by Mercado 2000).
Urban development and roads occupy approximately 62% of the total land area, while 50% is used for agriculture. Of this 50% of agricultural farmland, 70% is cut into areas of less than 5 ha in size (SEA/DVS 1990). Because of the uneven distribution of land, farmers frequently migrate into new regions where they are unfamiliar with the area's appropriate farming methods. This leads to severe erosion and other damage to the terrain (SEA/DVS 1990; Hartshorn et al. 1981). Currently, about 13,800 km2 of the country is covered by forest and the annual rate of deforestation is estimated to be 80 km2 (Bido 1998).
Despite economic and development challenges, the Dominican Republic continues to possess an extremely unique and rich diversity of plant, animal, and marine life. The topographical variation, mountain systems, and migratory influx of plant and animal species from North, Central, and South America has resulted in the promotion of a high degree of biodiversity. In addition, the relative isolation of Hispaniola has allowed divergent evolutionary trends to have more time to manifest themselves. This is evident in the high rate of endemic species, especially that of plants with a rate of 36% (Bolay 1997).
The rich flora of Hispaniola includes about 5,000 species of seed plants, and 600 species of ferns have been identified so far. Seed plants include about 3,900 dicotyledonous species (representing 147 different families) and 1,100 monocotyledonous species (comprised predominately of grasses and sedges, along with a high diversity of orchids). There also are seven species of gymnosperms. In addition, four of the 55 species of mangroves found in the world are present in the Dominican Republic. These include the Rhizophora mangle, the Laguncularia racemosa, the Avicennia germinans and Conocarpus erectus, known by the common names Mangle Rojo, Mangle Blanco, Mangle Prieto, and Mangle Botón respectively (Bido 1999).
Fifteen coastal lagoons have been inventoried and mapped in the Dominican Republic. Two of these are found in the Altagracia province: La Laguna De Bavaro (2.7 km2), which has been dried for tourist purposes and the Bahía Chiquita or Maimón Oriental, located near Macao (Bolay 1997).
The fauna of Hispaniola is equally diverse and includes 134 reptile species and 226 bird species. Many of these species are from "migratory groups", which are able to colonize islands easily. Mammals, however, are less well represented in the Dominican Republic with only about 20 species, most of which (about 17 species) are bats. Insect fauna remains to be well surveyed.
Although coral reefs of the Dominican Republic have been extensively damaged, there also remains considerable diversity of marine fish, mammals, and invertebrates within and outside of the island's reef system. This diversity might be traced to the inflow of nutrients from the Amazon and Orinoco in South America (Bolay 1997).
Along with rich biological diversity, the Dominican Republic also is characterized by an equally rich and unique cultural diversity. Part of this heritage includes cultural elements from the first three of the predominant groups of the island (the Ciboney, the Taino, and the Arawak). The Spanish also affected the culture during their occupation of the country (the island was the first of the West Indies "discovered," and settled, by the expedition of Christopher Columbus). In addition, African influences can be found in the culture (a product of the "importation" of slaves from West Africa during the early 1500s) (Cambeira 1997). Dominican culture is, therefore, a direct result of the interaction of these distinct ethnic groups. The cultural heritage of the Dominican Republic is an important consideration in the study of biodiversity, because culture plays a role in the types of interactions people have with the natural world (e.g., agriculture, herbal or traditional medicine) (Cornell Undergraduate Research Program on Biodiversity, 1999).
The Easternmost Province of the country is La Altagracia with 2,407.27 km2 and 112,396 inhabitants (Marcano 2000). The upper region of La Altagracia is made up of the Cordillera Oriental while the southern region is composed of the Eastern Coastal Caribbean plains. La Altagracia is geologically classified into Pleistocene and cretaceous regions. Two of the fifteen inventoried and mapped lagoons in the country, which are of great ecological importance, are in the La Altagracia province (Bolay 1997). While all of La Altagracia's coastal shores are major fishing and lobster grounds, much of the biodiversity in the area (including mangroves) is being protected in The Parque Nacional del Este and by the Punta Cana Ecological Foundation.
Geographically, the Area of Punta Cana is located approximately between 18o 30' and 18 o 50'N and between 68 o 20' and 68 o 40'W in the easternmost part of the Dominican Republic. It belongs mainly to the "Municipio La Otra Banda," Province La Altagracia. In 1997, the number of inhabitants was near 9,000 (about 0.11% of the population of the country and 7.8% of the province). The main economic activity in the Punta Cana area is tourism, which represents the main source of employment for the "Municipio La Otra Banda," generating more than 30,000 jobs by 2000 (CAST 2000, Grupo Punta Cana 2000, cited by Mercado 2000).
Punta Cana occupies part of the "Central Natural Region" in the "Caribbean Coastal Plain." This plain lies south of the foothills of the Sierra de Yamasá and the Cordillera Oriental. It extends 240 km from the mouth of the Ocoa River to the extreme eastern end of the island. The Caribbean coastal plain is 10 to 40 km wide and consists of a series of limestone terraces that gradually rise to a height of 100 to 120 m at the northern edge (Marcano 2000, cited by Mercado 2000). The area of Punta Cana is a plain between 0-10 m above sea level. It is constituted by a unique solid coralline rock substrate, which has many aerial spaces within. The abundant air pockets in the substrate do not allow for surface water; only subterranean streams appear here and there at the surface as circular ponds of clear fresh water (Mercado 2000). The most common types of terrestrial vegetation in Punta Cana are the Dry Forest, Dry Shrubland, and Coastal Dunes vegetation.
Approximately 1 km from the Punta Cana shoreline is a 14 km long coral reef system. The reef ranges in depth from <6 to >60 m. This reef system (the Punta Cana Reef) protects much of the coast from potentially harmful strong, high waves. The diversity of marine organisms in the reef is surprisingly high, given the damage sustained during Hurricane Georges in 1998. Fishing (including shrimp and lobster harvesting) has also taken its toll on the diversity of marine life in the area. However, efforts are underway to protect the reef system, including the introduction of no-fishing zones and incentives to use less damaging fishing methods.
The Punta Cana Ecological Reserve is designed to preserve the biodiversity of the region. On the edge of the reserve are the Cornell Punta Cana Biodiversity Laboratory, demonstration fruit, palm, and medicinal plant gardens, and a natural lagoon system. These facilities are designed to promote research on the plant, insect, marine, and bird life in the region, increase knowledge of the ecosystems, and increase general awareness about biodiversity.
Bido, H. 1998. Medio Ambiente De La Isla De Santo Domingo. Principios, Fundamentos y Enfoques para el Control de la Contaminación. Universidad Central del Este.
Bolay, E. 1997. The Dominican Republic, a Country between Rain Forest and Desert. Weikersheim, Germany.
Cambeira, A. 1997. Quisqueya la Bella, The Dominican Republic in Historical and Cultural Perspective. Armonk, New York.
Group Punta Cana. 2000. Brief General History and Description of Punta Cana Destination and Future Projects.
Hartshorn, G., G. Antonini, R. DuBois, D. Harcharik, S. Heckadon, H. Newton, C. Quesada, J. Shores, and G. Staples. 1981. The Dominican Republic Country Environmental Profile: A Field Study. JRB Associates, Virginia.
Marcano, J.E. 2000. Welcome to the Dominican Republic.
http://www.crosswinds.net/~jmarcano/ingles/index.html
Mercado, L. 2000. Estimating the Tourist Demand for Environmental Services in the area of Punta Cana, Dominican Republic. Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University.
Schubert, A. (in press). The Conservation of Biological Diversity in the Dominican Republic. Oryx.
SEA/DVS (1990). La Diversidad Biológica en la Republica Dominicana. Reporte preparado por el Departamento de Vida Silvestre para el Servicio Alemán de Cooperación Social-Técnica y WWF-US. Secretaría de Estado de Agricultura, SURENA/DVS, Santo Domingo.
I. Albarran, F. Guánchez, and J. Ketzis
A talent for linking ideas with opportunities once moved a friend to call Ted Kheel a "catalyst on a hot tin roof." Kheel, a 1935 graduate of the College of Arts and Sciences and a 1937 graduate of the Law School, has fashioned a unique and influential career that embraces, among other things, the law, labor mediation, real estate development, and environmentalism.
Kheel brought together several interests to create the Cornell Biodiversity Laboratory at Punta Cana, a facility built on the site of a 30-square-mile resort in the Dominican Republic he owns with Grupo Punta Cana, whose partners include the distinguished Dominican businessman Frank R. Rainieri, fashion designer Oscar de la Renta, and singer Julio Iglesias. The laboratory, to be dedicated early in 2001, will allow Cornell undergraduates to greatly expand the scope of its ongoing biological research.
The Punta Cana Beach Resort also allows Kheel to implement principles of sustainable development. Punta Cana's solid waste is treated through oxidation and evaporation rather than chemicals. Treated wastewater, 90 percent pure, is contained in two lakes and used to irrigate the golf course. "This is just one example of what we're doing to implement sustainability," Kheel says.
A lecture on campus by Eloy Rodriguez, the James A. Perkins Professor of Environmental Studies, inspired Kheel to create the Cornell Biodiversity Laboratory at Punta Cana. Professor Rodriguez told of the research he and his undergraduate students conduct in the Venezuelan Amazon, whose rich biodiversity provides them with a living laboratory to investigate questions such as the medicinal value of plants.
Kheel remembers, "I was fascinated by what he said. We lunched afterwards and I learned more about what he was doing in the field of biodiversity. And I asked Eloy, `Could you do the same thing in Punta Cana?' He said, `Absolutely.' We've been developing the resort for the last 32 years and doing it with regard to the environment and the protection of the diverse species on our property. A Cornell biodiversity laboratory here will prove that we really mean what we say about the environment."
The resort entered into a formal agreement with Cornell to create the laboratory. The Punta Cana Ecological Foundation, which Grupo Punta Cana created to maintain a 1,500-acre ecological reserve that Grupo Punta Cana donated to the foundation, has built the laboratory to Cornell's specifications on a 10-acre site within the reserve at an initial cost of $500,000. The foundation has also agreed, with Grupo Punta Cana's support, to maintain the laboratory, to provide students and faculty with food and lodging, and to rent the facility to Cornell for $1 a year as long as it is maintained as a teaching and research facility. To facilitate the transaction, the Kheel family TASK Foundation contributed to both Cornell and the Punta Cana Ecological Foundation.
"We got started a year ago, before the laboratory was built, putting up 20 or so students and professors in quarters at the hotel," says Kheel. "The enthusiasm on the part of the students is wonderful. Their spirit has, in turn, promoted enthusiasm on the part of our architects and builders. The Cornell Biodiversity Laboratory is one of the most exciting things with which I've been involved, and I think it's going to grow in importance and size." In 1999 Cornell undergraduates conducted research in entomology, botany, ornithology, marine biology, and ethno-pharmacognosy (medicinal plants).
According to Professor Rodriguez, he and his students primarily focus on identifying new anti-cancer drugs, particularly those to fight breast cancer, and compounds derived from naturally occurring plants, organisms, and even birds. "The ocean marine organisms are a valuable source of new medicines, and we will have the opportunity to study their ecology, biology, and biochemistry. This opens up a whole new dimension of study that we never had before." Also under study: scorpion venom that contains anti-tumor properties and birds that produce antibiotic fluids. "We have at this point already identified over 500 species of plants and 82 species of birds," notes Professor Rodriguez. "Twenty-five percent are endemic—they are found only in this area. The laboratory provides us with remarkable advantages."
The 5,000-square-foot, air-conditioned facility will include lodging for up to 32 Cornell students and faculty, who will be in residence 12 months a year. Through Cornell's Global Classroom Project, the laboratory has hosted two conferences that enabled scholars and students to participate via the Internet. Dean Sutphin, director of the Global Classroom and associate dean of academic programs in the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, says the distance learning facilities at Punta Cana will allow students to connect with courses on the Ithaca campus. "Moreover, we will be able to broadcast worldwide what students learn about biodiversity as part of the global network of universities we are building," explains Sutphin. "Mr. Kheel has helped us combine both new science and cutting-edge distance learning with the latest learning strategies."
Future uses for the Cornell Biodiversity Laboratory include collaborative research with the recently established Cornell Center for Complementary and Integrative Medicine at the Weill Medical College, which Kheel also supports. An annual conference with scientists from the New York Botanical Garden, Cornell's Bailey Hortorium, and various Caribbean institutions will also be convened at the laboratory.
"Mr. Kheel is an extraordinary man," says Professor Rodriguez. "When he came to one of my talks about how I trained Cornell undergraduates in the Amazon, he was very enthusiastic, but I never thought our conversation would develop into such an incredible laboratory. He has a great deal of intellectual energy, and he loves the students. We're very fortunate to have his support."
Earlier in his career, Ted Kheel gained a measure of notoriety for his mediation of a 114-day strike against the New York City newspapers and a subsequent 88-day strike. He helped resolve a conflict arising from the introduction of new technologies that displaced thousands of workers. President Lyndon Johnson enlisted his help in mediating a nationwide railroad dispute. He served as arbitrator of the New York Transit Authority for 33 years, and the New York Times declared Kheel "the most influential peacemaker in New York City in the last half-century."
Today Kheel sees the conflict between environmental protection and development as highly incendiary. "Developers despise the environmentalists, and vice versa," he notes. "I think sustainable development is a proposed solution of great viability to the conflict. That clash—the excesses of both views—has to be resolved before the world is destroyed, and the procedures of conflict resolution are available to address it." At Cornell, Kheel supports the Institute of Conflict Resolution in the School of Industrial and Labor Relations.
"I am not a scientist or a great scholar," says Kheel, who practices law with the New York firm Paul Hastings Janofsky and Walker. "I think the thing I do best is to solve problems or put things together. It's just the same as conflict resolution. I think business is very creative—it's a matter of putting things together."
C. Cappadora, R. Keller, and E. Rodriguez
Insects often excrete chemicals in order to protect themselves from either predators or bacteria. This particular study focused on the excretions of a long-horned beetle (family Cerambycidae). Not much is known about the function of the excretion. Preliminary tests were conducted in order to try to understand the importance of the excretion. The thin-layer chromatography tests performed indicated the possible presence of alkaloids, which are often found in insect repellents. Further testing will be done to determine the compounds in the excretion.
C. Cappadora, R. Keller, E. Rodriguez,
M. Aregullin, and R. del Castillo
Venoms are common throughout the animal kingdom. The protein nature of some venoms affects the neurological system and has led to recent studies on venoms as a treatment for arthritis. Hymenoptera (bees, ants, and wasps) are an excellent source of venom because of the wide gradient of toxicity, from causing mild reactions to paralysis. In this study, the venom was extracted from three wasp species from the families Vespidae and Pompilidae. The venom was extracted by pulling out the sting apparatus of the anesthetized females. The rest of the body was placed in a buffer solution at a pH of about 7.00 to prevent protein denaturing. The venom sacs were then crushed in order to release the venom. Preliminary paper chromatography analysis showed high concentrations of polyacetylenes. Some venoms had a higher concentration than others did. Further testing will be performed to test the kind of proteins that constitute the different venoms.
M. E. Dávila, F. Guánchez, M. Alford,
R. Bastardo, and E. Rodriguez
Some species of the genus Gossypium (Family Malvaceae) are known to have anticancer properties. The species Gossypium barbadensis L. is believed to contain substances in its seeds, leaves, and juice that work against lymphatic tumors. The red cotton stainer bug (Dysdercus andreae) was found living, reproducing, and feeding only on the seeds of this tree. One possible explanation is that these bugs use the chemistry of their Gossypium diet in order to survive and to defend themselves from predators and pathogens. Collections of these bugs and the cottonseeds were made in the Punta Cana Beach Resort area, La Altagracia, Dominican Republic. The cottonseeds were dried and a 95% ethanol extraction was made, and the bugs were ground and extracted using 85% ethanol. Thin-layer chromatography and anti-microbial bioassays were used to study the similarity of chemical constituents and the role of the seeds on the red stainers' diet, respectively. Monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, tannins, phenols, alkaloids, and flavonoids were found in both the insects and the cotton. Both also contained steroids _ saponins. The Gossypium seeds inhibited the growth of the bacteria Bacillus cereus (Gram +). The insects showed a small ring of inhibition, but further tests with higher concentrations need to be performed. Further, a water extract of these seeds and insects was tested for neurotoxins with guppies (Girardina guppii), and both solutions appeared to affect the fishes' behavior by causing a general slowing of motion and a delayed reaction when circular current was applied. When snails were put on filter paper treated with the same water extracts, those on paper containing the seed extract appeared to avoid the solution by moving to the lid of the petri dish after eating the paper.
K. Deal and E. Rodriguez
The plant Zamia pumila of the Cycadaceae (Zamiaceae) family is known to contain a toxic amino acid that causes neural problems when ingested by humans and cattle. The Taino Indians used two methods to remove toxins from Zamia pumila. One method was to use a beetle larva. In the other method, the ground plant material was extracted with saltwater then freshwater. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was performed to detect any amino acids or other compounds contained in a dried plant sample extracted with saltwater and then freshwater. No beetle larvae could be found to test the other method used by the Tainos. The TLC detected possible phenols and polyacetylenes.
M. Jensen, R. Bastardo, M. Alford,
and E. Rodriguez
Two species of termite, one arboreal and the other ground-nesting, were collected and observed in the Punta Cana area of La Altagracia, Dominican Republic. Preliminary identification of the specimens indicates that they belong to the genus Nasutitermes (Isoptera). Approximately one gram of workers, soldiers, and nest material of each species was collected, ground, and extracted in 95% ethanol. Thin-layer chromatography revealed strong similarities between the two species in each of the three extract classes. Workers of each species exhibited phenols, tannins, and monoterpenes; soldiers contained phenols, tannins, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, lactones, alkaloids, and polyacetylenes; and the nest material displayed phenols, tannins, monoterpenes, flavonoids, and polyacetylenes. The high number of compounds present in the soldier extracts is intriguing, as Nasutitermes species eject defensive secretions from their modified mouthparts when threatened. Workers and soldiers of each species displayed a limited ability to inhibit the growth of Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria. The arboreal nest material, however, strongly inhibited the growth of B. cereus, P. aeruginosa, and the fungus Candida albicans, forming the most distinct ring of inhibition. These preliminary studies indicate that the soldiers and nest material of termites possess an interesting chemical blend that may be worthy of further investigation.
A.A. Martinez, J. Berry, R. Keller, M. Aregullin, and E. Rodriguez
A lepidopteran larva was found feeding on a Senna occidentalis L. (Caesapinaceae) in La Marina of the Punta Cana Beach Resort, Domincan Republic. Using thin-layer chromatography (TLC), the chemical composition of the plant's leaves, the larva, its frass, its pupa, and adult were compared. No similarity between the chemical composition of the plant's leaves and the larva were found. There also were no similarities found between the larva and adult. Such a finding implies that there is a possible change in the chemical composition of the larva and adult. However, when the TLC plate was exposed to iodine, the pupa and larva exhibited similar chemical constituents. The TLC also showed a difference in the polarity between the frass and the leaf. This finding implies that the larva is changing the polarity of the leaf before the extraction.
G. Peck, J. Berry, and E. Rodriguez
An unknown species of millipede (Class Diplopoda) was found at El Bonao de Higüey in the Dominican Republic. The millipede secretes an ill-smelling, red substance from its entire segmented body. Microscopic dissection at 10X magnification provided the basis for all anatomical elucidation. The substance is secreted via a gland and cone-like muscular structure that leads to a lateral aperture in each segment of the body. An interconnected posterior and lateral vascular network permits communication between the secretion gland and a posterior, spine-like structure. Capillary tubes placed on the lateral aspect of the millipede shell allowed collection of the pure secretory substance for thin-layer chromatography (TLC) analysis. An ethanol extract of the secretory substance was analyzed for anti-microbial properties via a nutrient agar disc-diffusion assay. The TLC plate, when subjected to potassium permanganate spray reagent, yielded a yellow to brown color change. This suggests the presence of polyacetylenes in the secretory substance. The disc diffusion assay exhibited a 4 mm zone-of inhibition. This indicates the presence of significant anti-microbial property. Therefore, it is speculated that the secretions serve as a chemical and biological defense mechanism.
y Larvas de Pyralidae (Lepidoptera)
M. Sanchez, R. Bastardo, and E. Rodriguez
Algunas larvas de insectos utilizan los compuestos químicos de la planta hospedera para diferentes fines, ya sea como defensa contra depredadores o para apareamiento o reproducción. Usando técnica de Cromatografia de Capa Fina (TLC), se realizó una comparación entre extractos de larvas de Pyralidae (Lepidoptera) y su planta hospedera Citharexylum fruticosum L. (Verbenaceae). En ambos extractos se detectaron terpenoides, fenoles, alcaloides y taninos. En los ensayos de bioactividad con Pseudomonas aeruginosa y Bacillus cereus, y en losantimicóticos con Candida albicans hechos a ambos extractos, solo hubo actividad en los extractos de la planta, en extractos de la larva no se observó. Lo realizado en el experimento nos permite establecer que la larva esta usando los compuestos bioactivos de la planta por su poder antibacteriano. Sin embargo, aun se requieren analisis químicos adicionales.
Marine Biology Research
Research on marine biology at the Punta Cana Reef has had two major foci. The first focus of the research has been to conduct a survey of the marine organisms in the reef. The second focus of the research is the collection of specimens for chemical and bioactivity analysis. Both of these projects are ongoing.
The survey of the organisms in the reef is being used to assess population changes over time. This will be particularly useful for determining the impact of changes in fishing policies in the area, the impact of development, and damage caused by hurricanes. There are 18 dive sites throughout the reef, and two buoys are being installed at different sites so that the health of the reef over a long-term period can be better monitored. This will enable us to determine the progress of the re-growth of coral as well as to determine the population of the different organisms living in and on the reef.
Currently, the Punta Cana reef still shows the unfortunate scars of Hurricane Georges. Much of the plating and branching corals have been destroyed. However, re-growth is beginning and this reef has the potential to return to a healthy status. There is little to no coral bleaching and no black band disease, which also makes this reef's future very promising. Over-fishing (with net, spear, and line) has had a drastic effect on the populations of fish. During dives to assess species diversity, nets have often been found attached to invertebrates, usually causing damage and/or death. It is rare to see large fish (over 8 inches long) in the reef area, as these fish do not have a chance to grow to full size before being fished out.
Despite the damage caused by the hurricane and over-fishing, the reef has a high diversity of marine organisms. To date, over 231 different species of fish from 49 families have been observed in the reef. Also, 80 species of algae, 30 species of hard coral, 20 species of soft coral, many sponges, and numerous invertebrates (the total representing over 40 families) have been observed. All observational data are being entered into a database system — this includes family, genus, specific epithet, common name and abundance for each species.
Part of the survey includes determining at which depths the organisms live, the overall abundance of different species, and species interactions. Species interactions are of particular interest, because they can lead to clues about the chemistry of the species. One particularly interesting observation to date, is how the Christmas tree worm (Spirobranchus giganteus) lives among fire corals (Millepora spp.), which are known to be extremely poisonous. Most other marine organisms avoid contact with the fire coral. However, the Christmas tree worm has apparently evolved to cohabitate with the toxic coral.
Given the fragility of the reef, marine organism collection for chemical analysis has not been as great as that for plants. Approximately 52 invertebrate species (representing 19 Families) have been collected. Preliminary chemical profiles have been conducted, as well as anti-microbial activity tests. All extracts of marine organisms have been saved and further bioactivity tests are planned.
Millepora alcicornis (branching fire coral) and Millepora complanata (blade fire coral) are both considered to be toxic hydrocorals that can produce a painful burning sensation upon direct skin contact. Therefore, it is not surprising that these two species are on every SCUBA diver's "don't touch" list. However, their toxicity might indicate the presence of bioactive compounds. Millepora squarrosa (box fire coral), although not considered toxic, also might contain bioactive compounds, because of its close evolutionary relationship with M. alcicornis and M. complanata. The marine worm, Spirobranchus giganteus (Christmas tree worm) also was found to be associated with all three species. Christmas tree worms are known to live within hard calcium tubes inside coral and are easily identifiable by the two protruding distinctively shaped feeding structures that give the worm its name (Kohler and Kohler 1997). Thus, all four species (three hydrocorals and one marine worm) were tested for anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties. In addition, preliminary chemical analyses and ecological studies were performed to determine if a chemical ecological relationship exists between the marine worm and the fire coral, which would give further insight into the bioactive compounds present.
Reef Survey
An ecological survey was performed on the three species of fire coral to determine depth range and distribution and to see if these could be correlated with size. SCUBA dives were conducted one to three times daily for approximately three weeks at several dive sites outside the Punta Cana Beach Resort in Punta Cana, Dominican Republic. Regular neoprene SCUBA diving gloves were worn to prevent skin contact with the stinging fire coral. Transects (10-100 m) were randomly placed approximately along the middle of the reef at each site and data were collected only on the corals that were within 0.75 m (approximately one armspan) on either side. The type (i.e. branch, blade, or box) and size (width x height) for each specimen were recorded. Also, the type of substrate that the coral was encrusting and any organisms found adjacent to or directly on the fire coral were noted to determine if any particular organisms are commonly associated with fire coral.
Collections of all three fire coral species and the Christmas tree worm were made over the course of a week. Collections were at reefs ranging in depth from 1.5 to 12.2 m. A pick was used to dislodge the encrusting base of the corals from the substrate. In the laboratory,forceps were used to pull out the Christmas tree worms from the calcareous tubes on the coral. All samples were ground separately using a mortar and pestle. The coral samples were extracted in 95% ethanol and the marine worm was extracted in approximately 60% ethanol. The ratio of material to ethanol was not determined. Rather, the necessary amounts needed for bioactivity testing and chemical analysis was determined qualitatively based on the darkness of the extracts.
Biological activity of all four extracts was tested using bioassays against the gram-positive bacteria Bacillus cereus, the gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and the fungus Candida albicans. Petri dishes with solidified agar were first coated with the microbes. Next, the bottoms of the plates were divided into four quadrants (one for each extract). Using a micropipette, the crude extracts were applied to sensi discs. Each crude extract was tested at two levels, a dilute level of 20 uL/disc and a more concentrated level of 60 uL/disc. After the ethanol was evaporated from the discs, they were placed on the petri dish using forceps. The inoculated petri dishes were placed in an incubator for 24 hours at 35°C. A well-defined ring of inhibited growth around the disc characterized significant inhibition. A slightly fainter ring of growth around the disc characterized weak inhibition (Aregullin and Rodriguez 2000).
A comparative chemical study was conducted with all four extracts using thin-layer chromatography (TLC). For the TLCs, aluminum backed silica gel coated plates were used. The solvent for the TLCs was paint thinner (benzene and xylene). Developed plates were viewed under long and short wave ultra-violet light, exposed to iodine, and sprayed with KMnO4.
Ecological Study
Data were collected on a total of 240 specimens. These were divided into three separate depth ranges (6.1-9.1 m, 10.7-13.7 m, and 13.7-16.8 m) in order to determine the effect of depth on the relative abundance and size of each species (Table 1). Between 6.1 and 9.1 m, box fire coral was the most abundant (47%) of the three species of fire coral. However, between 10.7 and 13.7 m and between 13.7 and 16.8 m, branching fire coral was the most abundant (75% and 85% respectively). The relative abundance of both box and blade fire coral decreased with increasing depth (from 47% to 8% in box fire coral and from 34% to 6% in blade fire coral). On the other hand, branching fire coral increased in relative abundance with increasing depth (from 24% to 85%) (Figure 1). No pattern could be found regarding changes in size (width x height) with increasing depth (Table 2).
Besides the Christmas tree worm studied here, several other organisms ranging from invertebrates to algae were commonly found to be associated with fire coral. Species of algae found growing densely around fire coral were Dictyota sp., Stypopodium zonale, Halimeda sp., Padina sp., and Amphiroa sp. Three to four brittle stars, Ophiothrix suensonii, could also be found clinging to some specimens. On a few occasions, a certain hydroid (possibly Thyroscyphus ramosus) was found completely covering the fire coral. While fire coral often was found encrusting dead, underlying hard coral, some specimens were found to be encrusting live soft coral. In these cases, the fire coral would encase the live coral and thus take on its shape, but was still recognizably fire coral based on its distinct coloration and protruding hair-like nematocysts. Species of coral that were observed being encrusted by fire coral include Muricea pinnata, Muricea laxa, Muricea muricata, Gorgonia ventalina, Eunicea sp., and Palythoa caribaeorum.
Bioactivity
In the diluted assays, none of the four extracts inhibited growth of any of the three microorganisms they were tested against. However, with the concentrated extracts of branching fire coral, blade fire coral, and the Christmas tree worm, weak inhibition of growth was observed against B. cereus and P. aeruginosa. Also, the concentrated extract of box fire coral showed weak inhibition of growth of B. cereus and significant inhibition of growth of P. aeruginosa. The branching fire coral, blade fire coral, and Christmas tree worm extracts showed significant inhibition of C. albicans, while box fire coral showed no inhibition of growth (Table 3).
Comparative Chemistry
Thin-layer chromatography analysis revealed compounds common to all four extracts under short wave UV light (Rf=0.92). Compounds common to only the three fire coral species were seen under long wave UV light (yellow fluorescence at Rf=0.94 and red-orange fluorescence at Rf=0.82) and under short wave UV light (green fluorescence at Rf=0.46). Furthermore, compounds common only to branching fire coral, blade fire coral, and the Christmas tree worm were found under long wave UV light (blue fluorescence at Rf=0) and also under short wave UV light (absorbance at Rf=0). The identities of these compounds were not determined with the exception of the fire coral compounds at Rf=0.82. When NH4OH was added to these spots, their red fluorescence was enhanced under long wave light revealing a possible flavonoid.
Ecological Study
In general, patterns of spatial distribution of coral reef populations correlate with the net effect of both physical and biological factors (Lewis 1996). The increase in relative abundance of branching fire coral and the decrease in relative abundance of box and blade fire coral with increasing depth might be attributed to some depth-dependent environmental condition(s) (e.g. sunlight, temperature, etc.) that tends to favor branching fire coral at deeper depths and box and blade fire coral at shallower depths. The seemingly random variation in coral size at different depths indicates that size is affected by some depth-independent environmental condition (e.g. water current, plankton density, etc.) (Lewis 1992).
The fact that so many different organisms were found to be associated with them, suggests that fire coral may play a complex ecological role within the reef ecosystem. For example, it has been shown that the concentration of certain alga around fire coral is due to decreased herbivory in these areas because of fire coral's toxicity (Littler et al. 1987). For the same reason, some marine invertebrates might associate with fire coral due to decreased predation.
Most interesting about the bioassays was that while all of the concentrated extracts showed some form of inhibition of bacterial growth, only branching fire coral, blade fire coral, and Christmas tree worm displayed anti-fungal properties. This correlates with an important difference between the fire coral species: that only branching fire coral and blade fire coral are toxic species, while box fire coral is non-toxic. Therefore, it is possible to speculate that the toxin found in branching and blade fire coral is somehow related to their anti-fungal properties. The observation that Christmas tree worm also inhibits fungal growth suggests that some chemical ecological relationship may exist between the marine worm and fire coral. One way to further test this in future studies is to see if those Christmas tree worms that inhabit other non-toxic corals still inhibit fungal growth.
Chemical analysis also is consistent with bioassay results. Compounds common only to the three extracts that were anti-fungal were observed - also lending to the speculation of a chemical ecological relationship. Compounds common only to the three species of fire coral is expected since they are closely related species.
The differences observed between box fire coral and blade fire coral in bioactivity and chemical analysis further support the belief that these two species of fire coral are in fact two different species and not just two different morphological types of the same species (Fenner 1993).
Aregullin, M. and E. Rodriguez. 2000. "Antibiotic and Photoactive Bioassay" packet distributed to participants of the Cornell University Undergraduate Research Biodiversity Program.
Fenner, D. 1993. Species distinctions among several Caribbean stony corals. Bulletin of Marine Science 53(3):1099-1116.
Kohler, A. and D. Kohler. 1997. The Underwater Explorer: Secrets of a Blue Universe. London: New Holland Ltd.
Lewis, J. 1992. Heterotrophy in corals: zooplankton predation by the hydrocoral Millepora complanata. Marine Ecology Progress Series 90:251-256.
Lewis, J. 1996. Spatial distributions of the calcareous hydrozoans Millepora complanata and Millepora squarrosa on coral reefs. Bulletin of Marine Science 59(1):188-195.
Littler, M., D. Littler, P. Taylor. 1987. Animal-plant defense associations: effects on the distribution and abundance of tropical reef macrophytes. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 105:107-121.
K. Gorospe, A. Fields, and E. Rodriguez
Abstract
Three species of hydrocoral, Millepora alcicornis (branching fire coral), Millepora complanata (blade fire coral), and Millepora squarrosa (box fire coral) were studied for anti-microbial properties. Two of the three species, M. alcicornis and M. complanata, are considered toxic and often produce a painful burning sensation upon direct skin contact. Due to the presence of this powerful toxin, it was hypothesized that these two species might have anti-microbial properties. This was tested using bioassays against the gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus cereus, the gram-negative bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and the fungus, Candida albicans. Since it is a closely related species, M. squarrosa also was tested for these properties. In addition, it was observed that the marine worm, Spirobranchus giganteus (Christmas tree worm) was found often living in calcified tubes within all three species of fire coral. Because of its close association with fire coral, S. giganteus also was subjected to anti-bacterial and anti-fungal tests. The results of the bioassays showed M. alcicornis, M. complanata, and S. giganteus to have anti-fungal properties against C. albicans. The bioassays also indicated that all four extracts have at least weak anti-bacterial properties against B. cereus and P. aeruginosa. Thin-layer chromatography revealed compounds common to only the species that showed anti-fungal properties. Furthermore, an ecological study was conducted at the Punta Cana Reef in the Dominican Republic, cataloging size, depth, and adjacent organisms for each of the three species of fire coral. Results show that the relative abundance of each species of fire coral varies with depth while variations in size seem to be unrelated to depth. Additional studies are needed to isolate and identify the bioactive compounds, to determine if a chemical ecological relationship exists between S. giganteus and Millepora, and to further investigate the complex ecological role that Millepora plays in the reef ecosystem.
Table 1. Number of specimens found at each depth and percentage of total specimens recorded for a given species at different depths.
Figure 1. The relative abundance of branching, blade, and box fire coral at different depths.
.
Table 2. Average width x height (cm) for box, blade, and branching fire coral at each depth.
Table 3. Results of anti-microbial bioassays
(60 ul of crude extract)
+ = very weak inhibition
++ = weak inhibition
+++ = significant inhibition
— = no inhibition
J. Acosta and E. Rodriguez
Blade Fire Coral Millepora complanata gives a painful sting when it comes in contact with the skin. Studies have shown that many poisons have anti-microbial properties and this stinging compound might possess such properties. Two anti-microbial assays using the disc diffusion method were carried out; one test was carried out with Escherichia coli and the other with the yeast Candida albicans. In addition, thin-layer chromatography was used to determine some of the possible chemicals responsible for M. complanata's stinging properties. Both of the disc diffusion assays showed no anti-microbial properties. Thin-layer chromatography revealed the presence of polyacetylenes, alkaloids and phenols. Further bioassays are needed to determine the presence of other possible bioactive compounds
R. Ayalon, A. Fields, and E. Rodriguez
Various marine sponges have been reported to possess antitumor, anti-fungal, antiviral, antibiotic, and antihelmintic activity despite their simple structures. Four species of sponge, Xestospongia muta, Calyx podatypa, Cinachyra sp., and one unidentified specimen, were studied for ecological and biochemical information. Ecological data were taken by randomly placing 30.5 m transects at ten sites ranging in depth from 0.9-17.4 m along the Punta Cana, Dominican Republic coast and coral reef. Size, habitat, and abundance were recorded and studied for possible relationship to biochemical activity. X. muta, Cinachyra sp., and the unidentified species were found only at depths greater than 12.2 m. C. podatypa was found at all depths and was the most abundant species. The four sponge specimens were extracted with 95% ethanol for biochemical testing. Bacterial bioassays were conducted and results showed that Cinachyra sp. and the unidentified specimen both expressed inhibitive activity against the gram positive bacteria Bacillus cereus and against the gram negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. No activity was found against the yeast Candida albicans. The extracts were also chemically analyzed using thin-layer chromatography, in which the anti-microbial species showed the presence of phenols. Further biological and chemical studies are needed to identify other anti-microbial sponge species and their active compounds in the Punta Cana area.
Two Different Species from the Order Actiniaria (Phylum Cnidaria): Condylactis gigantea and Stichodactyla helianthus
M. Bonet, A. Fields, and E. Rodriguez
The Actiniaria (anemones) are marine invertebrates that inhabit secluded crevices of coral rubble. Anemones have tentacles that vary in size and color. When touched, they retract as a defensive mechanism and hide within the gaps of the coral rubble. Physical contact with them may cause irritation on sensitive skin and paralysis in small fish. A 33 m transect was randomly placed in 13 different reef sites off the coast of Punta Cana, Dominican Republic. Data on the size, abundance, and habitat of anemones were collected at depths ranging from 0.9-18.3 m. Condylactis gigantea is found at depths anywhere from 9.1-18.3 m, while Stichodactyla helianthus is more abundant in shallower waters of 0.9-9.1 m. The objective of this study was to determine if these invertebrates contain anti-fungal or anti-bacterial properties. Preliminary tests were conducted using 95% of ethanol extractions of ground and filtered C. gigantea and S. helianthus. Anti-microbial bioassays were performed using the bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram -), and Bacillus cereus (Gram +), and the yeast Candida albicans. Disc diffusion assays did not show the presence of any anti-microbial compounds. Thin-layer chromatography tests (TLC) also were carried out. The results of the TLC that were treated with KMnO4, Vanillin, Liebermans, and Dragendorff revealed the presence of alkaloids, phenols, sesquiterpenes, and monoterpenes. Further testing needs to be conducted using different microbial species at higher extract concentration levels.
The Relationship Between the Distribution of Cyphoma gibbosum on Plexaura homomalla, Gorgonia ventalina, Pseudoplexaura sp., exaurella sp. and Pseudopterogorgia americana and their Anti-microbial Properties
O. Golod, A. Fields, and E. Rodriguez
Cyphoma gibbosum, a mollusk commonly known as the Flamingo Tongue, inhabits and browses on soft coral. As a result, these corals may become susceptible to fungal and bacterial infection. The objectives of this study were to identify the soft corals on which C. gibbosum are most often found and to determine if the preferred corals have greater biological activity to protect them from infection. Randomly placed 33m transects were used to determine the distribution of C. gibbosum on five different species of soft corals (Plexaura homomalla, Gorgonia ventalina, Pseudoplexaura sp., Plexaurella sp. and Pseudopterogorgia americana). This investigation was conducted at seven different sites off the shores of Punta Cana Beach Resort at Punta Cana, La Altagracia, Dominican Republic. At most sites, C. gibbosum were primarily found on P. americana and Pseudoplexaura sp. Ninety-five percent ethanol extracts of all five soft corals were tested against Candida albicans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus cereus for anti-microbial activity. A qualitative assessment of activity indicated that Pseudoplexaura sp. and Plexaura homomalla are the most potent inhibitors of P. aeruginosa and B. cereus growth. These results suggest that there may be a number of other factors influencing the distribution of C. gibbosum. For instance, most sites were dominated by P. americana, suggesting a simple relationship between the number of C. gibbosum on P. americana and the percentage of P. americana inhabiting the reef. Other characteristics of P. americana such as its mucosal texture may facilitate attachment for C. gibbosum. Further observations and chemical analyses are necessary to determine the factors governing the distribution of C. gibbosum.
Punta Cana, Dominican Republic
A. Herforth, A. Fields, and E. Rodriguez
The genus Halimeda (phylum Chlorophyta) is known to be defended against herbivory in a variety of ways, including chemical defense and calcification. It was hypothesized that the algae are not only defended against herbivory, but against microbes as well. The biochemical activity and habitat of six species of Halimeda, found at Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, were studied in this experiment. Of the six Halimeda species found at depths from 3-65 ft, ecological data were taken at 12 sites along the Punta Cana coast using a 3 ft2 quadrat every 10 ft along a randomly placed transect. The species most commonly found in shallow waters (3-25 ft) were H. monile, H. incrassata, and H. opuntia. Halimeda opuntia, as well as H. copiosa, H. goreaui, and H. tuna were the species found in deep water (25-65 ft). All species were observed between 20-30 ft, which apparently is a crossover zone of deep and shallow species. Herbivory was observed on H. tuna; little herbivory was noted in the other species. Biochemical activity was tested in bioassays against the gram-positive bacteria Bacillus cereus and the gram negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as the yeast Candida albicans and the lesser mealworm larvae (Alphitobus diaperinus). Halimeda monile, H. incrassata, H. opuntia, and H. tuna extracts all expressed activity against B. cereus and P. aeruginosa, although whole H. tuna enriched growth in P. aeruginosa around a very small inhibition ring. Only H. opuntia showed anti-fungal activity. No insecticidal properties were observed. The chemical analysis consisted of thin-layer chromatography (TLC), in which the anti-microbial species showed a band that was absent in the inactive species. Further study is required to isolate and identify the active compounds of the anti-microbial Halimeda species.
from the Caribbean Sea
S. Padron and E. Rodriguez
The compound manaloide from the marine sponge Luffariella variabilis has become a pharmacophore lead for numerous anti-inflammatory compounds. Hoping to find similar activity in members of the same phylum (Porifera), marine sponges in the area of the Punta Cana Beach Resort in the Altagracia Province of the Dominican Republic were observed, collected and extracted. Bioassays for Escherichia coli, Candida albicans, and Staphylococcus aureus were performed on a branching tube sponge and two unidentified Porifera species. Positive anti-microbial results were observed in the two unidentified collections. Microscopic examination by a sponge taxonomist is necessary to identify these two specimens. Analysis, to be continued at Cornell University, will primarily focus on anti-inflammatory compounds by use of enzyme inhibition assay. Thin-layer chromatography was run on the two active collections, but no compounds have been identified.
and Sargassum platycarpum
R. Patterson, A. Fields, and E. Rodriguez
The purpose of this investigation was to conduct a preliminary chemical analysis of four species of Sargassum (a brown alga) and to determine if these species contain anti-microbial properties. In addition, data on the habitat and abundance of Sargassum spp. were collected. The species studied were Sargassum platycarpum, S. polyceratium, S. fluitans and S. hystrix var. buxifolium. At 13 sites (depths of 0.9-18.5 m), off the shores of Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, a 1 m2 quadrat was aligned with a 30.5 m transect every 3 m. The organisms and substratum within the quadrat were recorded. S. platycarpum, S. polyceratium, and S. hystrix var. buxifolium were found at depths ranging from 1.9-9.2 m. The S. fluitans was found floating on the ocean surface in shallow areas and along the beach. For the chemical and anti-microbial tests, the algae were extracted in 95% ethanol for three days and then filtered. The filtrate was then analyzed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and tested for anti-microbial activity. Analysis of the TLC plates included applying KMnO4, Dragendorff, Vanillin-H2SO4, Lieberman, and 1% FeCl3. The plates, with the exception of those sprayed with KMnO4, were heated and analyzed. The filtrate was assayed against a gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus cereus, Gram-negative bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and a yeast, Candida albicans. Results from the TLCs for the four species of Sargassum proved inconclusive. However, for the bioassays S. hystrix var. buxifolium inhibited B. cereus and P. aeruginosa. S. platycarpum, S. polyceratium, and S. fluitans showed no activity.
Preliminary Chemical Analysis of
Zooxanthellae Found on Coral of the Order Scleractinia
J. Penalver, J. Berry, and E. Rodriguez
The zooxanthellae, a type of algae found growing in and on all coral, is solely responsible for the coral's brilliance. Furthermore, each species of coral is associated with a specific species of zooxanthellae. Collection of various species of stony coral, Agaricia agaricites, Siderastrea radians, Porites porites (forma: divaricata), Porites porites (forma: porites) and Diplora strigosa, resulted in the collection of various zooxanthellae. The colors of the coral ranged from purple to orange to brown, suggesting that the zooxanthellae are of different species. Upon filtration, the chemistry of the algae was examined using thin-layer chromatography (TLC). The results of the TLC treated with Dragendorff and KMnO4 suggest the presence of alkaloids and polyacetylenes in all five samples. Treatment of the TLC plates with vanillin suggests that zooxanthellae collected from all species except Porites porites (forma: divaricata) contain phenolics. Further chemical analysis will be done on zooxanthellae at Cornell University using instruments such as the Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectrometer.
O. Piloto and E. Rodriguez
The purpose of this investigation is to determine if a chemical difference exists between healthy and unhealthy common sea fans (Gorgonia ventalina). Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and anti-microbial assays, against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans were performed. The TLC did not indicate a clear difference between healthy and unhealthy common sea fans. However, it did indicate the presence of polyacetylenes and phenolics. The anti-microbial assay indicated only a slight ring of inhibition on S. aureus around the disc with extract from the healthy common sea fan and no inhibition with the unhealthy common sea fan disc. These results might represent a chemical difference or might be due to a difference in the concentration of the extracts. Based on these experiments, one cannot conclude that healthy and unhealthy common sea fans are chemically different.
R. Pons, D. Wilson, J. Berry, and E. Rodriguez
This study compared the chemistry of the rock boring sea urchins, Echinometra lucunter, living in two different habitats. The long-spine urchin, Diadema antillarum, was used to determine if species of different genera were producing similar chemicals. Using ethanol extractions and thin-layer chromatography (TLC), no differences were found in between Echinometra lucunter from different habitats. There was also evidence of different compounds, which could not be identified, in both the rock boring and the long-spine sea urchins. Test with various TLC reagents show that all the urchins examined contain phenolic compounds.
M. Roman, A. Fields, and E. Rodriguez
This study focused on the infection of the fungus Aspergillus sydowii on Gorgonia ventalina (sea fan). The fungus, which is normally terrestrial, has entered the sea and made sea fans its host. This fungus causes sea fan death by deteriorating the tissue of the sea fan. Data for this study were collected from reefs off of the Punta Cana coast (Province La Altagracia, Dominican Republic). Random 30.5 m transects were laid at depths ranging from 9.2-18.5 m in 9 different reef sites. The height and width of healthy and infected sea fans within 1 m (on both sides) of the transects were measured. Samples of both healthy and infected sea fans were extracted and tested for anti-microbial and anti-fungal activity. At concentrations of 1X (20mL) and 3X (60mL) there was no inhibition against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus cereus, or Candida albicans. A second test was conducted at higher concentrations (4X and 6X). The healthy and infected sea fan extracts inhibited B. cereus and P. aeruginosa at a concentration of 6X. Thin-layer chromatography tests also were done on both extractions of the sea fans. This test showed a low concentration of compounds such as phenols, tannins, alkaloids and sesquiterpenes in the healthy sea fan and a larger concentration of these compounds in the infected sea fans. Further testing needs to be performed in order to determine how the fungus affects the sea fans.
Ornithology Research
Ornithology in the Dominican Republic offers many promising aspects for biodiversity research and student training. Hispaniola holds the highest overall diversity across taxa, the highest diversity of ecosystems, and the highest rate of endemism of the Caribbean. Accordingly, the Dominican avifauna boasts the highest diversity and the second highest rate of endemism of the West Indies. Birds being easy to study, and given the underlying simplicity of island biomes _ Dominican species are perfect interfaces for approaching some of biodiversity's most essential aspects : biogeography, insular colonization, and adaptive radiation.
A primary goal of the research at Punta Cana is to monitor the size of the local bird populations and conduct biodiversity assessments using birds as indicator species. Chemical and adaptation studies focus on the use of anti-parasitic and anti-microbial green nesting material and the bioactivity of compounds excreted from the uropygial glands.
For the green nest material study, plants have been collected from several nests of different bird species. These materials were extracted and will be analyzed at Cornell University. For the uropygial gland study, over 52 individual birds from 15 species in 10 families have been trapped, measured and released. Measurements included sexing, aging, evaluation of molt, breeding activity and body measurements. Uropygial gland secretions have been collected and stored in ethanol for laboratory analysis at Cornell University from over 60 individuals and 13 species.
Eighty different bird species have been observed in the Punta Cana area. During the summer of 2000, 59 species (75% of the total) were observed, indicating that there are fluctuations in the populations. Bird densities are high for a large precentage of breeding species, including some forest restricted endemic species. However, some typical species of coastal systems or dry forest (e.g., Corvus leucognaphalus, Amazona ventralis, and Nesoctitis micromegas) have apparently disappeared from the area in the recent past (potentially due to pesticide use, habitat destruction, lack of food resources (marine bird species) and direct species destruction). These species can be found in near by Parque Nacional Del Este, indicating that they should be able to repopulate the area if habitats are restored.
While the population of some bird species appears to be decreasing, other species are relatively abundant in the area. Of particular interest is the narrow-billed tody (Family Trogodinae, Todus sp.). The narrow-billed tody is an endemic and endangered species that can easily serve as a symbol of the importance of the Punta Cana Ecological Foundation Reserve.
The smooth-billed ani (Crotophaga ani L.) has a range of distribution that includes Southern Florida, Central America, northern South America and the Caribbean Islands. It favors a humid, vegetated habitat with a high abundance of insects, and prefers open pasturelands to woodlands. The ani is a social bird (Everglades National Park website). Usually, several males (average 12) build a nest and a few females (average 4) reproduce in the nest matrix. All the birds participate in nest protection during the two-week egg incubation period. The nest is constructed in dense vegetation _ trees or shrubs _ approximately 6 to 30 feet above ground level. The ani uses green plant material to build the nest matrix. The ani's constant social interactions, nest reutilization and dense habitat increase the potential pathogen and parasite load in the nests and on the birds (Everglades National Park website).
Previous fieldwork has established the presence of green plant material within the nest matrix of various birds (Dumbacher 1997). It has been proposed that birds use fresh vegetation in the nest substrate for protection against pathogens and parasites (Clark 1991). For the nest protection hypothesis to be correct, birds must face a substantial pressure from pathogens and parasites and the plants used must be effective in lowering the parasite and pathogen loads. Also, the use of plant material should correspond to the probability of being parasitized, the parasite load, and the probability of encountering pathogens. In addition, the birds must be able to distinguish which plants are anti-parasitic or anti-microbial and incorporate those plants in the nest matrix (Toft 1991).
In the Dominican Republic, field observations indicate that the ani seeks certain plant species to incorporate in the nest matrix. The purpose of this study was to determine if the plants used in the nest building possess antimicrobial properties. The study was conducted in the Punta Cana Ecological Reserve, Punta Cana Beach Resort, Altagracia Province, Dominican Republic. All laboratory work was conducted at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Nest Observation and Collection
Four Crotophaga ani nests were studied during the months of June and July 1999. Each nest was within a 3-mile radius of the Punta Cana Beach Resort. Three nests were left intact and visual observations were used to determine the fresh plant species in the nest substrate. These nests were currently occupied and contained eggs. One unoccupied nest was collected and dissected. Dominican botanists identified the green plant material in the nests. The identified plants in the nests were then located within the Punta Cana Ecological Reserve. Voucher specimens and bulk collections (at least 100g of dry plant material) of the plants were made. Voucher specimens were deposited in the Cornell University L.H. Bailey Hortorium and the Jardín Botánico Nacional Dr. Rafael M. Moscoso, Santo Domingo.
Plant material was air-dried, ground and stored until it was analyzed at Cornell University. The plant material was extracted with a mixture of chloroform-methanol (1:1), left overnight for 24h, and filtered with a gravity funnel. (Some plant material was set aside to be extracted with other solvent systems.) The extracts were dried under vacuum, using a rotavap, weighed, and retaken in a methanol and chilled for 20-30 minutes. The chilled solution was filtered and the methanol soluble solution and methanol insoluble solutions were handled separately. Based on the results of bioassays with these extracts, the methanol soluble portion containing the active compound was further separated using a Sephadex LH-20 Column with methanol as the eluting solvent. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was performed on all extracts (crude extract, methanol soluble, chloroform soluble and the fractions obtained from the Sephadex LH-20 column.) For the TLC's, a 9:1 Chloroform: Methanol solvent system was used on aluminum plates coated with silica gel and each plate was sprayed with vanillin reagent for visualization. The crude extract and the fractions obtained from the active methanol portion were tested for antimicrobial activity. The active fraction was further separated by a secondary run through the Sephadex LH-20 Column with methanol. TLC, using the same solvent system, was performed on the active fraction. TLC analysis also was conducted on concurrently isolated fractions (these fractions were obtained from additional fresh plant material.) Based on TLC analysis, similar fractions, obtained from the Sephadex LH-20 column, were combined. The resulting fraction was then run through a silica gel column. Fractions obtained from the silica gel were subjected to bioassay analysis to determine which fraction contained the active compound. (See Figure 1 for a diagram of the separation method used.)
Extracts and fractions were tested against six different organisms: Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillus cereus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a disc-diffusion assay to assess the anti-microbial properties of each sample. Each extract (20 mL) was deposited on a filter disc (1 cm in diameter) and the discs were placed on agar plates inoculated with the test organism. The plates, in duplicate, were incubated for 24 h at 37°C. Antimicrobial activity was determined to exist by measuring growth inhibition rings around the sample-treated discs.
Four green plant materials were identified in the Crotophaga ani nests: Ficus trigona (Moraceae), Sideroxylon foetidissimum (Sapotaceae), Citharexylum sp. (Verbenaceae) and Guaiacum officinale (Zygophyllaceae). Results for Ficus trigona, Citharexylum sp., and Guaiacum officinale showed no antimicrobial activity against the test microbes in the disc-diffusion assay of both the methanol soluble and methanol insoluble fractions of these species. However, Sideroxylon foetidissimum produced significant results. Disc-diffusion bioassays of both the crude extract and the methanol soluble portion of this plant demonstrated a ring of inhibition against C. albicans and S. cerevisiae, but not against E. coli, S. aureus, B. cercus, or P. aeruginosa. The methanol soluble portion was further fractionated through a Sephadex LH-20 column. Nine fractions were isolated. Fractions 3, 4, 5, and 6 inhibited the growth of C. albicans. Fraction 4 also inhibited the growth of S. cerevisiae. The most active fraction (fraction 4) was further resolved using silica gel column chromatography. Twenty-six fractions were obtained. The twenty-six fractions were combined based on the similarities by TLC, resulting in nine collated fractions. Of these nine fractions, when subjected to disc-diffusion bio-assay analysis, only one contained a ring of inhibition in both C. albicans and S. cerevisiae _ Fraction 2. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of fraction 2 provided a total ion chromatogram (TIC), showing one major constituent at time interval 10.83 min. (Figure 2). The mass spectrum of this active principle is shown in Figure 3. Search within the GC-MS library yielded the identity of the compound as 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester (linoleic acid methyl ester). The structure of linoleic acid methyl ester is shown in Figure 4.
Of the four plants identified in the smooth-billed ani's nest, only Sideroxylon foetidissimum showed antibiotic properties against C. albicans and S. cerevisiae but not against E. coli, S. aureus, B. cercus, or P. aeruginosa.
Bioassay-guided fractionation yielded methyl linolenate (9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid) as the active principle. These results suggest that not all green plant material selected for nest building is chosen for its antibiotic properties but for some other reason, such as support, texture, or chemical effectiveness against ectoparasites.
Related studies have shown that 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid serves as a chemical defense against ants in both nymphalid butterfly larvae (Osborn 1998) and beetle larvae (Morton 1998). Therefore, the presence of 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid within the nest matrix of the ani must be further investigated. Future studies will examine the role of this active principle against probable microbial organisms and parasites found within the nest matrix.
Clark, L. 1991. The nest protection hypothesis: the adaptive use of plant secondary compounds by European starlings. In: Bird Parasite Interactions: Ecology, evolution and behavior (ed. J.E. Loye and M. Zuk). Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York: 205-221.
Dumbacher, J.P. and S. Pruett-Jones. 1997. Avian Chemical Defense. In: Current Ornithology (ed. Val Nolan Jr. and Ellen D. Ketterson). Plenum Press, New York, NY 13: 137-174.
Everglades National Park, Smooth Billed Ani. October 30, 2000. http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/ani.htm
Morton, T.C. and F.V. Vencl. 1998. Larval beetles form a defense from recycled host-plant chemicals discharged as fecal wastes. Journal of Chemical Ecology 24(5):765-785.
Osborn, F. and K. Jaffe. 1998. Chemical ecology of the defense of two nymphalid butterfly larva against ants. Journal of Chemical Ecology 24(7):1173-1186.
Toft, C. 1991. Current theory of host-parasite interactions. In: Bird Parasite Interactions: Ecology, evolution and behavior (ed J.E. Loye and M. Zuk). Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York:3-15.
Figure 1. Flow Chart of Bioassay-guided Fractionation
Figure 2. Total Ion Chromatogram of Fraction 2
Figure 3. Mass Spectrum of 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester
Figure 4. Chemical structure of 9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester
Two Cuculid Species
A. Campbell, D. Rosane, M. D. VerMilyea,
H. Volquez, A. Dhondt, and E. Rodriguez
Current data show that bacteria and fungi degrade feathers and may reduce fitness in birds (Burtt and Ichida, 1999). This is particularly the case in ground foraging species such as the smooth-billed ani, Crotophaga ani, and the Hispaniolan lizard cuckoo, Saurothera longirostris (Cuculidae), which are two common elements of the avifauna of Punta Cana, Dominican Republic. We predict that anti-fungal and anti-bacterial green nest materials are used by these cuculids to shield the developing plumage of the nestlings. We found active nests of both species with considerable volume and diversity of green plant material lining the nest. Leaves from thirteen plants were identified. Ethanol extracts of Celtis trinervia Koord. (Ulmaceae), found in the nests of both species, were prepared and used for anti-microbial assays on one species each of a gram positive bacterium, a gram negative bacterium, and a yeast. The extract was shown to inhibit growth of the gram positive bacterium Bacillus cereus, but did not inhibit the gram negative bacterium or yeast. We suggest further anti-microbial assays using bacterial and fungal cultures collected from a live bird. Other suggestions for further research include investigations of ecological and phylogenetic function and origin in nest-lining behavior of neotropical cuculids.
J. Pinto, E. Rodriguez, and D. Rosane
Researchers have long observed animal-plant interactions, with the field of chemo-ornithology recently gaining momentum. Certain species of birds, primarily Crotophaga ani, as focused on in this study, have been known to employ vegetation in the nest matrix. The plant material found in nests of the Crotophaga ani were identified as belong to the Boraginaceae (penda), Zygophyllaceae (guayacum), Sapotaceae (Sideroxylon foetidissimum Jacq. _ caya), Moraceae and Bignoniaceae (Crescentia cujete L. _ higuero) families. Of these five plant species, two were found recurring in the nests: Boraginaceae and Moraceae. Using thin-layer chromatography, alcohol extractions, and paint thinner, extractions of all plant species were tested for terpenoids. Terpenoids contain essential oils which act as insecticides. The presence of such chemicals would suggest the usage of nest substrate secondary compounds as repellents. Unfortunately the TLC analysis did not provide conclusive data. Bioassays were also performed to determine if any of the extractions contained anti-microbial activity. These assays also proved inconclusive. Further experimentation of concentrated extract is needed to fully discard or validate the presence of repellents in Crotophaga ani nest substrate.
J.C. Robles, D. Rosane, J. Berry,
and E. Rodriguez
Secretions from the uropygial gland, located on the lower back of many birds, are characterized by their potential anti-microbial properties. Fieldwork was conducted and various bird species, endemic and non-endemic to Hispaniola, were sampled for uropygial gland secretions and ectoparasite identification. Of these, uropygial gland secretions from three bird species, Coerida fabeola, Vireo altiloquus, and Melanerpes striatus, diluted in 95% ethyl alcohol, were screened for the presence of anti-fungal and anti-bacterial compounds and for biological activity. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) run on paint thinner solvent and disc diffusion assays on agar plates coated with bacteria and fungal cultures of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans were employed. Neither TLCs nor disc diffusion assays showed the presence of anti-fungal, anti-bacterial and other biologically active compounds. Further analysis will be conducted on the remaining bird samples.
J.C. Shneider, J. Perez, E. Rodriguez, D. Rosane, S. Rose, R. Castillo, and R. Sano
Speculation has been made that the action of preening by birds is partly an effort to combat the presence of ectoparasites on their plumage. This particular research is being done in correlation with another study which proposes that the secretions produced by the uropygial gland used in preening contain anti-microbial properties which help to kill or repel ectoparasites. If this assumption is in fact true, than perhaps some of the chemistry of these secretions is derived from the birds' diets. A general survey of the fruit diets of the most prevalent birds of the Punta Cana and Bonao area was made and samples collected. Meanwhile, uropygial secretions and other assessments of these same birds were taken. Though further in-depth studies will be performed at Cornell University, the siguin (Coerida fabeola) was focused on while in the field. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) tests were run to see if the uropygial secretions and the diet of this bird showed any chemical similarities. Unfortunately, technical difficulties made this part of the results unreliable. However, the chemistry of one particular plant in the siguin's diet, Mora tinetorie (Moraceae), showed the possibility of containing quite active compounds. Based on the TLC results, there were indications of phenols, alkaloids, and terpenoids. After noting these possibilities, a series of disc diffusion anti-microbial assays were done on both gram positive and negative bacteria cultures, and a fungal culture. M. tinetorie showed definite signs of gram positive anti-bacterial properties on the Staphylococcus aureus culture with a 2 mm halo appearing around the inoculated disc. Further research at Cornell University will determine whether this activity has any relevance in uropygial secretions and ectoparasite repellence. In addition, the diets of the other birds and their uropygial secretions will be analyzed.
(Ploceus cucullatus) : an adaptive response to novel ectoparasite infestations?
M. D. VerMilyea, D. Rosane, A. Campbell, H. Volquez, and E. Rodriguez
While colonial breeding in birds has many adaptive benefits (Gill 1995), the major trade-off is infestation by horizontally and vertically transmitted arthropodal nest parasites. This has a negative effect on reproductive success, with nestling survivorship suffering a 50% reduction in some species (Brown and Brown 1986). Recent studies show however that insecticidal green nest material can help reduce parasite and pathogen infestation (Clark 1991). In the case of the colonial and polygynous African weaver, Ploceus cucullatus, introduced to Hispaniola from Africa, we predict that green nest materials including fibers from palma cana (Sabal causiarum Becc. (Arecaceae)), a sedge (Cyperaceae), and the green shoots of Panicum maximum Jacq. (Gramineae) have been selected to deter novel ambient ectoparasites. In order to test these